Write about Kunthala Satakarni

Write about Kunthala Satakarni Kunthala Satakarni is a Satavahana dynasty king ruled between 52B.C. – 44 B.C. Famous author Vastayana was the court poet of Kuntala Shatakarni. Vatsayana authored ‘Nyaya Bhashyam’ and ‘KaamaSutra’. Panchagunnala Aadi Narayana Shastry translated ‘KamaSuthra’ into Telugu. This book is also a good source to know the social conditions of Satavahana dynasty. Karthari copulating style was reason for Kunthala Shatakarni’s wife Malayavathi’s death. Malayavathi suggested Kunthala Satakarni to replace Prakrit with Sankrit, as State language. Sharva Varma, Gunadya and Somadeva Suri also patronized by Kunthala Satakarni. Sharva Varma authored ‘Kathanthrya Vyakarana’ in Paishachi Prakrit language. Gunadya authored Brihathkatha. Somadeva Suri was the author of ‘Katha Saritsaagara’. Kathaa Saritsaagaram also gives details about dispute between Gunadya and Sharva Varma.

Write about Periplus of the Erythrian Sea? / Write about the Red Sea Dairy

Write about Periplus of the Erythrian Sea? / Write about the Red Sea Dairy The Periplus of the Erythraen Sea, written by an anonymous Greek navigator, gives details of Indian exports to the Roman Empire. The main exports were: pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, spike-nard, malabathrum, diamonds, saffron, precious stone and tortoise shell.   The author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (75 A.D.) gives the most valuable information about the trade between India and the Roman Empire. He mentions the port of Naura (Cannanore) Tyndis (Tondi), Muzuris (Musiri, Cranganore), and Nelcynda as the leading ones on the west coast.   It also mentions Argaru (Uraiyur) as the place to which were sent all the pearls gathered on the coast and from which were exported muslins called agraritic. Silk, which was supplied by Indian merchants to the Roman Empire, was considered so important that the Roman emperor Aurelian declared it to be worth its weight in gold.   The Roman need for spices could not be met entirely by local supply; this brought Indian traders into contact with south-east Asia. In return for her exports, India imported from the Roman empire such commodities as topaz, tin cloth, linen, antimony, crude glass, copper, tin, lead, wine, orpiment and wheat. The Romans also exported to India wine amphorae and red glazed Arretine ware which have been found at Arikamedu near Pondicherry. They also sent to India a large number of gold and silver coins.

Details about Amaravathi Sthupa

Details about Amaravathi Sthupa Sthoopas are three types. The monuments constructed on the relics of Buddha are called Sthupas. Sthupa is a semi spherical structure. Colin Mackenzie discovered Amaravthi Sthupa in 1797. It is a brick construction. It is of 43ft circumference and 100ft height. It has 4 entrances on four sides in different directions. We can see 5 pillars at each entrance, on the dais. Five important events of Buddha are depicted on this sthupa. We can see Elephant and Lotus (which symbolizes the birth of Buddha), Horse (as symbol of Buddha’s Great Renunciation), Bodhi tree, (symbol of Buddha’s enlightenment), 8 Spokes Wheel (as a symbol of Buddha’s first sermon), and Sthupa, (symbolises Buddha’s leaving his body). Amaravathi sthupa is the most important one among Buddhist sthupas in India.

Write about Amaravathi style of Architecture?

Write about Amaravathi style of Architecture? The elements of Amaravathi style of architecture are first seen in Sanchi sthupa. This architectural style reached to the zenith in Amaravathi stupa. Civilized life is depicted in Amaravathi style of architecture. Amaravathi was a place which was centre for a unique architectural style. Amaravthi is located 32kilometres away from Guntur. It is located on the banks of river Krishna. Mahadeva, a Buddhist saint sent to south by Ashoka, made Amaravathi his as centre. Amaravthi style of architecture was widespread in south India and South East Asian countries. Gudimallam temple is located near Renigunta, in Chittor district. Gudimallam is the most ancient Shiva temple. It was build based on Amaravathi style of architecture.  

Give a brief account of Shanthamoola I

Give a brief account of Shanthamoola I Vasistee puthra Shantha Moola ruled from 220 A.D. to 233 A.D. He was the founder of independent Ekswaka dynasty. Vasistee puthra Shantha Moola’s title was ‘Mahaaraaja’. With the help of Pugiyas and Hiranyakas Vasistee puthra Shantha moola dethroned Satavahana king Pulomavi IV and established independed Ekshawaka kingdoms. Telangana, Coastal Andhra regions were parts of his kingdom. His inscriptions are found at Rentala and Keshanapalli. Nagarjuna Konda inscriptions – by Veera purusha Datta. S/o VP Shantha moola. Eulogical inscription about VP Shantha moola. In this inscription VP Shantha moola is praised as “Aveka go hala shatha sahastra pada isha” – means the one who donated lakhs of gold coins, thousands of cows, oxen, ploughs and land. On Shanthamoola’s memorial pillar, Shanthamoola is seen performing Angnisthoma sacrament, tonsured, and wearing a deer skin, with a staff in his hand and without foot wear. One servant is seen holding a water bowl. One of the 5 Brahmins is accepting donation with his right hand. Harmyasri and Shanthi sri are the sisters of Shanthamoola. Both praised his greatness in their inscriptions. Shanthamoola performed Ashwmedha, Agnishtoma, Agnihotra, and Vajapeya sacrifices. In Nagarjuna konda excavations Ashwamedha fire altar was discovered. Matrimonial alliances with Poogiya and Dhanika dynasties. Shanthisri married Maha Skandasri of Poogiya dynasty. Maha Skandasri was mahatalavara, Maha Senapathi. Skanda Sagara was the son of Shanthisri and Maha Skandasri. Shanthisri titles – 1. Mahathalavarini, Mahaadaanapathni. Adavi Shanthisri – D/o Vaashistee puthra Shanthamoola. Adavi Shanthisri married Skanda Vishakha Naga of Dhanika dynasty. Skanda Vishakha Naga was Mahasenapathi, Mahaa dandanaayaka. Shaanthamoola was the follower of Vedic religion. According to inscriptions he worshipped Ujjain Maha Skanda Karthikeya (Mahaa Sena). Shanthi sri and Harmyasri followed Buddhism.

Write about Maatariputhra Veerapurusha Datta

Write about Maatariputhra Veerapurusha Datta? Maataree Puthra Sree Veera Purusha Datta 233 A.D. – 253 A.D. S/o Shanthamoola. His inscriptions are found at Nagarjuna konda, Jaggaiah peta, Uppugundooru, and Alluru. Greatest among the Ekshwakas. Made matrimonial alliances with the contemporary rulers and established stability. Acc. Nagarjuna konda inscription he had 5 wives.

1. Daughter of Shanthisri.

2 and 3. Bapisri and Shashtisri – D/o Harmyasri.

4. Rudhra Bhattarika. Princess of Saka Kshathrapa. Descendant of Chastana.
5. Mahaadevi Bhattideva.

Kodabalisri – Only daughter of Maatari puthra Shree veera purusha datta. According to Kodabalisri inscription – She was married to Vishnu Rudra Shivalaananda Shaathakarni of Chutu dynasty, Kunthala kingdom. (Banavasi = Vaijayanthi) This inscription was issued in the 11th regnal year of Ehuvala Sri Shaanthamoola. In the beginning Maataree puthra Veera purusha Datta was the follower of Vedic religion. Later he embraced Buddhism. Maataree puthra Veera purusha Datta’s reign is a golden period for Buddhists. In one of the statues of Nagarjuna konda, a person is seen stamping shiva linga. It is not of Veerapurusha Datta’s statue. It is a part of Maandhaatha Jaathaka. Shanthi sri, maternal aunt of Veera purusha datta, constructed a Dhaathugarbha mahaa chaithya at Nagarjuna konda in the 6th regnal year of Veerapurusha datta. She wished the well being of Brahmins, Sramanas and all the subjects. In the 18th regnal year of Maataree puthra Veera purusha Datta, she issued another inscription wishing the well being of her nephew, Maataree puthra Veera purusha Datta. Due to Shanthisri , Ekshwaka kings and queens patronized Buddhism.

Write about Vaasistee Puthra Bahubala Shaanthamoola or Shanthamoola II

Write about Vaasistee Puthra Bahubala Shaanthamoola or Shanthamoola II Vaasistee Puthra Bahubala Shaanthamoola was also known as Shanthamoola –II. He was son of Maataree puthra Veera purusha Datta and Mahadevi Vaasistee Battideva. Ekshwakas started the tradition of giving grandfather name to grandson. Later this tradition is followed by Gupthas, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Vishnukundins, and Shalankayans. Ehuvala Shanthaamoola’s inscriptions are found in Nagarjuna Konda excavations. Elisri – Military general of Ehuvala Shaanthamoola. Ehuvala Shaanthamoola waged a war before his 11th regnal year. Elisri constructed a city named Eleshwaram. Elisri constructed a Shivite temple named – Sarvadevalaya. By this time Sanskrit attained the status of official language in his kingdom. Ehuvala Shaanthamoola was the follower of Vedic religion. Devotee of Mahaasena. Kaarthikeya, Pushpa Bhadra Swamy, Nodi gireeshwara Swamy, Devi temples were constructed in Nagarjuna konda.

Give a clear picture of istory of Ekshvakas

Give a clear picture of history of Ekshvakas On the ruins of Satavahana Empire various kingdoms emerged. Chutu Satakarni Kingdom- © Banavasi/ Vaijayanthi in Karnataka. Abhiras – Konkan, Aparantha. – in Maharashtra. Ekshwakas – © Vijayapuri / Nagarjuna Sagar. In Telangana and Coastal Andhra. Ekshwakas ruled from 220 A.D. to 330 A.D. This is upto the emergence of Vengi/ Eastern Chalukya. Ekshwakas coin are found in: Andhra – Krishna, Guntur, Kurnool, Prakasham districts. Telangana – Nalgonda, Khammam, Mahaboob Nagar. As Satavahana king Vijaya Satakarni’s coins are found in this place, this place came to be called as Vijayapuri. Ekshwakas royal emblem – Lion. During the Ekshwakas reign Nagarjuna konda / Vijayapuri flourished as Buddhist centre as well as centre for education. Sources: Archaeological Sources:- Coins, Monuments, Sculpture. Ekshwakas coins are found at – Nagarjuna konda, Phanigiri, Nelakondapalli, Vaddemanu (Mahaboobnagar dist.), Eleshwara in Nalgonda district. This indicated the extent of their kingdom. Inscriptions are found at Nagarjuna Konda, Jaggaiah peta (Krishna dist.), Ramireddy palli, Phanigiri etc. Inscriptions are in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. From the period of Ehuvala Shanthamoola these inscriptions came to be written in Sanskrit.

1. Mahasthoopa inscriptions 2. Chaithya Gruha inscriptions
2. Differentiated Pillar inscriptions ` 4. Inscriptions of sculpture.

Ekshwakas coins are lesser in number when compared to Satavahana coins. Ekhswakas did not issue gold and silver coins. In Nagarjuna konda, 148 Satavahana coins are found. This proves that during Satavahana period itself Nagarjuna Konda was an important place. Roman emperors’ and queens’ coins are found at Nagarjuna konda. In Nagarjuna Konda – Tiberius Hedriyan, Fastena queen coins were found. In Eleshwaram – Sestimus Severs etc Roman emperors’ coin were found.   Buddhists Chaithyas, Sthupas, Greatways (thoranas) were found at nagarjuna Konda, Ramireddy Palli, Nelakondapalli, Phanigiri, Anupu are helping us to know about the religion and social conditions of the Ekshwakas. They also help us to know about the contemporary rulers. In the excavations undertook at Nagarjuna konda, Ekshwaku period (3^rd century A.D.) forts, Buddhist sthupas, Viharas, Chaithyas, Aramas, temples, bathing ghats were found. 1926 – A. Ranganatha Sastri, a Telugu assistant in Archaeological department for the first time identified the archaeological remains at Nagarjuna konda. 1938 – H.N. Longston, and B.N. Ramachandran started excavations at Nagarjuna Sagar. 1954- Under the leadership of Rayaprolu Subbarao, excavations were carried on large scale. The sculpture, coins, inscriptions and other things which are unearthed in the excavations are moved to Nagarjuna Konda and Anupu. Birth Place of Ekshwakas: Ekshwakas were Andhra Bruthyas- Andhra Bruthyas= Andhras’ servants. Ekshwakas worked under Satavahanas as Mahatalavaras, Maha Senadhipathis. Ekshwakus imitated Satavahanas in adding mothers’ names to their names. Ekshwakas names start with ‘Skanda’ and end with ‘Anaka’. According to Vayupurana – Ekshwaku was head of Solar lineage. Ekshwaku was eldest among 9 sons of Manu. He ruled Ayodhya as his capital. He had 100 sons. Vikakshi was eldest on among them. Vikakshi succeeded his father to the throne. 50 sons of Ekshwaku established small kingdoms in North India and remaing 49 sons established small kingdoms in South India. Law giver Bauddhayana mentioned that South Indians has the tradition of marrying their niece. We don’t find this tradition in North India. Veerapurusha Dutta married daughters of his 2 maternal aunts. Based on this fact historians came to a conclusion that Ekshwakus belong to South India. Ekshwakas belong to Dravidian lineage Ekshwakas are Kannadigas_ Sten Kono, Vogel. Ekshwakas are Tamilians_ K. Rajagopalachary. Ekshwakas migrated from Kosala. _ Rapson, Bular. Dharmamrutha, a Kannada text mentions that Yashodhara, King of Anga kingdom, came to south India and established a kingdom near river Krishna, Battiprolu (Prathipalapuram) as its capital. Ekswakas are native Andhras. _ Bishap Coldwell. Ekshwakas are the ancient Andhra, with ‘Ikshu’ as their emblem.   Origin of Ekshwakas Puranas mentioned Ekshwakas as Sri Parvatheeyas, Andhra Bruthyas, Sri Parvatheeyandhras. K.P. Jaiswal also concluded that Ekshwakas, Sriparvathiyas, Andhrabrithyas are same. According to Puranas and Buddhist sources, Nagarjuna konda to Srisailam hilly areas are Sriparvatha region. According to Jaggaiah peta inscription and the inscriptions found at Nagarjuna Sagar, Sri Shanthamula is Eshwaka king and his capital in Vijayapuri, which is located on the western side of Nagarjuna Sagar. In 3^rd and 4^th centuries Sriparvatha was called as Vijayapuri. Like Satavahanas, Ekshwakas also added their mother name to their name. This tradition was ended with Eshwakas. Based on the usage of the words ‘Siri’ and ‘Sami’, we can come to a conclusion that Ekshawakas are Satavahanas’ feudatories. (Kodabalisiri, Shanthisiri, Hammasiri). Ekshwakas worked as ‘Mahatalavaras’ under Satavahanas. Date of Ekshwakas According to Matsya Purana – Sriparvatheeya 7 kings ruled for 52 yeas. (Dvipanchashatham). According to Phanigiri inscription Rudra Purusha Datta ruled for 18 years. According to D.C. Sarkar Ekshwakas ruled for 75 years. Based on Nagarjuna Konda inscription he came to the conclusion. Shantha Moola 220 A.D. – 233 A.D. Veera Purusha Datta – 233 A.D. – 253 A.D. Ehuvala Shanthamula – 253 A.D. – 277 A.D. Inter regnum of Abhira Vasusena – 277 A.D.(278) – 283 A.D. Rudra Purusha Datta – 283 A.D. – 301 A.D. Last Ekshwaka ruler. Based on the information found in the coins of Gurajala (Guntur dist.), Nagarjuna Konda, Phanigiri, and inscriptions, Rudra Purusha Datta was the last Ekshwaka king. S/o Ehuvala Shanthamoola. In his 4^th regnal year, a person named Noduka Sri donated some land to Halampura Swamy temple. This place is identified as Nagulapuram in Guntur. Abhira Vasusena inscription is found in Nagarjuna Sagar. This inscription was issued in the 30^th regnal year of Abhira Vasusena. According to this inscription – Shaka Rudradaman of Avanthi, Abhira Vasusena, Banavasi Chutu Vishnu Rudra Shivalananda Satakarni etc constructed Ashtabhuja Swami temple. But the contemporary Ekshwaka king name was not mentioned in this inscription. Acc. D.C. Sarkar, they might have defeated contemporary Ekshwaka king and installed the statue. Abhiras ruled Nagarjuna konda for few years.

Give a clear picture of history of Vishnukundins

Give a clear picture of history of Vishnukundins Vishnukunds have a primary place among the most important royal dynasties in the history Telugu country. They have not only spread the name and fame of the Telugu country far and wide, but have also introduced several new practices in the fields of religion, language and culture. Vishnukunds started their political stint on the bank of the river Krishna and extended their empire upto river Narmada. For some time they have controlled the land between the three seas, Arabian ocean, Bay of Bengal, and Indian Ocean). Vishnukunds ruled for nearly 210 years. Amarapuram, Indrapala Nagaram / Sukrapuram, Dendaluru, Bezawada, and Purani Sangamam were Vishnukuds capitals. Amarapuram – A mandal in Mahabub Nagar district, Telangana. Indrapala Nagaram / Sukrapuram – located on the outskirts of Tummalagudem village in Valigonda mandal of Nalgonda district, Telangana. Dendluru- near Pedavegi, West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh. Bezawada - Vijayawada, Andhra pradesh. Purani Sangamam – it could be either Sanganigundala in Amrabad mandal, or Sangameshwaram near Alampur mandal, Mahabub Nagar. Sources for the history of Vishnukunds: Inscriptions – 13 inscriptions issued during Vishnukund period. + 8 issued during later period. Vishnukund period inscriptions

1. Two Tummalagudem Copper plate inscriptions - @ Valigonda mandal, Nalgonda district. Telangana.
2. Chaithanyapuri stone inscription – Rangareddy district. Telangana.
3. Keesaragutta stone inscription – Keesaragutta.
4. Saleswaram stone inscription - Amarabad Mandal, Mahabub Nagar district. Telangana.
5. Velpuru stone inscription – Sattenapalli, Guntur district. Telangana.
6. 2 Ipur Copper plate inscriptions –Tenali, Guntur district, Telangana.
7. Ramatirtham copper plate inscription – Visakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh.
8. Chikkulla copper plate inscription – Tuni, East Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh.
9. Tundi copper plate inscription – Tuni, East Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh.
10. Polamuru copper plate inscription – Ramachandrapuram, East Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh.
11. Khanapur copper plate inscription – Satara district, Maharashtra.

  Coins: Coins found at – Yeleshwaram, Bhuvanagiri, Sultanabad (in Kareemnagar) in Telagnana. Bojjanna konda, Elamanchili (in Vishakhapatnam), Andhra Pradesh. Nasik, Kanhapur, and Nagpur in Maharashtra. Brahmagiri in Madhyapradesh. Internal trade was carried on in the places where the coins were found. Books: Janasraya Chando Vicchithi. Sethu Bandha. Archaeological remains: Fort walls, Cities, and Cave temples. Birth place: Vishnukunds called themselves as ‘Amarapurishwaras’ or ‘Lords of Amarapuram’. They also said that with the blessing obtained from the feet of the Sriparvatha Swami, they extended their kingdom on both sides of the Sriparvatha. Samudra Guptha was reason for their aggressive expansion. Samudra Guptha who waged wars from North to South and won many kingdoms, gave back the kingdoms to the respected kings on the condition that they should promote Hinduism. Vishnukunds favourism to Hinduism is evident from the Yagas they performed. They patronized Brahmins, donated Agraharas to them. Vishnukinds performed ‘Rajasuya’, ‘Ashwamedha’ and ‘Hiranya Garbha’ sacrifices. Munuluru, present day Munnanore, in Amrabad mandal, Mahabubnagar district, Mamidipuram is Amarapuram / Amrabad, Mahabub Nagar. The Umamaheshwara temple area, located nearby, became famous for mango groves, especillay for Thummeda Mango trees. Until two decades ago, there used to be a Mango tree at Uma Maheshwara Temple. The temple used to be under the mango tree. If the mangoes of this tree are broke open, bees used to come put. In this area, on the name of ‘Mamidi’ (Mango) these used to be some villages. Near Amrabad, there used to be a village called ‘Molaka Mamidi’. Mango in Sankrit is called as ‘Amram’ and bees as ‘Bhramaram’. In that way ‘Thummeda Mamidi’ became ‘Bhramaramram’. This word is also there in ‘Rasarathnakaram’ written by Nithyananda Siddha of 13th Century. Bhramaramram / Bhramarambha is the wife of Mallikarjuna at Srisailam. The prime diety Shiva temple is Srisailam is Mallikharjuna / ‘Lord Shiva’. An old idol of Lord Shiva made of Arjuna tree trunk / Maddhi tree trunk is there in the northern side of inner temple / sanctum / Garbha griha at Srisailam. The main deity came to be called as Mallikarjuna, as the lord Shiva idol made of Arjuna tree trunk was worshipped by Mallika / Jasmine flowers. Mallika + Arjuna = Mallikarjuna. There used to be a place named Mamidi vanam in present day Amrabad area. As the part of Sanskritisation, Mamidi vanam name was changed to Amrapuram / Amarapuram. Amarapuram is also the name of the prime God of early Vedic period, Lord Indra’s abode. Due to the impact of Vedic religion, they named their later capitals were named as Sakrapuram and Indrapala Nagaram. Vishnukund’s inscriptions mention that they have dug tanks and wells for the purpose of drinking water and irrigation. Many sources for the history of Vishnukundins appear in Amrabad and munnanur areas. Vishukunds’ sacrificial altar and bath place were found near an old temple at Prathapagirikota, near Munnanur. A village named Brahmanapalli was donated to Brahmins by Vishnukunds. This Brahmanapalli is located towards the north of the fort Prathapagirikota. The Brahmins of this village got performed thousand of sacrifices by Vishnukunds.   Political history of Vishnukunds

1. Indra Varma 358 A.D. – 370 A.D.
2. Madhava Varma 370 A.D. – 398 A.D.
3. Govinda Varma 398 A.D. – 440 A.D.
4. Madhava Varma II 440 A.D. – 496 A.D.
5. Deva Varma 495 A.D. – 496 A.D.
6. Madhava Varma III 496 A.D. – 510 A.D.
7. Vikramendra Varma 510 A.D. – 525 A.D.
8. Indrabhattaraka Varma II 525 A.D. – 555 A.D.
9. Vikramendra Varma II 555 A.D. – 569 A.D.
10. Manchana Bhattarak (no clarity about his exact ruling period, ruled around 570 A.D.)

Write about Madhava Varma II of Vishnukund dynasty

Write about Madhava Varma II of Vishnukund dynasty Madhava Varma II 440 A.D. – 495 A.D. Title – Janaashraya. Greatest among the Vishnukund kings was Madhava Varma. He fought and won more than 100 battles. As a mark of his victory in each battle, he installed a Shiva linga on Keesaragutta. He has also built Ramalingeshwara swami temple at every place where he won the battle. Even today these Ramalingeshwara temples built at Velpuru, Ipur, Indrapala Nagaram, and Keesaragutta are receiving acts of worship. Some of the victories of Madhava Varma II: Madhava Varma occupied Kalinga, with the help of Prabhakara, his relative and ruler of Gunapasa Puram. Madhava Varma defeated Pallavas in his 33^rd regnal year. Expanded upto Gundlakamma river. Madhava Varma defeated the last ruler of the main Vakataka line, Prithvisena and married his daughter VakatakaDevi. In the west, the Vakataka Kings of Maharashtra were very powerful. Vishnukunds and Pallavas wer always engaged in wars. Hence, in order to prevent the Pallava invasions, Madhava Varma II shifted capital to Denduluru pura, located near Vengi. He also raised the wall and strengthened the fort of Amarapuri, which was his 1^st capital. Deva Varma was Madhava Varma’s son. Deva Varma was appointed as the viceroy of Amarapuri. Extent of Mahava Varma’s kingdom. East –Bay of Bengal West – Arabian sea. North – Reva, Narmada river. South – Southern sea. May be Pulicat lake. One of Madhava Varma’s inscriptions was found in Maharashtra. Vishnukunds’ coins were found in all over Maharashtra. Title of Madhava Varma – Trivara nagara Bhavnagata sundari hridaya nandana. In order to announce his victories Madhava Varma had performed 11 Ashvamedha sacrifices, 16 Rajasuya sacrifices and thousand sacrifices such as Vajapeya, Purushamedha and others. This is mentioned in Vishnukund inscriptions. Even Gods have appreciated his judicial systems. Janashraya Chando vichhithi was authored by Madhava Varma II. It a book on Chandas / Metre. Many rulers, including Kakatiyas, considered him as the real founder of Vishnukund dynasty.

5. Vikramendra Varma I

Son and successor of Madhava Varma II. Title – Vishnukundi Vaakaataka Vamsha dwaya alankaara Janma. He got the title as he was son of Madhava Varma II and Vakataka devi. Title – Mahaakavi. As he was more interested in literary activity, his son Madhava Varma III proclaimed independence at Amarapuram.

6. Madhava Varma III

Madhava Varma III completely exterminated Kandaara / Andanda Gothrika dynasty. Title – Trikuta Malayaadhipa. After exterminating Kandaara dynasty, he took this title.

Give an account of Socio, political, economic, religious and cultural conditions of Vishnukundins period

Give an account of Socio, political, economic, religious and cultural conditions of Vishnukundins period Give an account of Socio, political, economic, religious and cultural conditions of Vishnukundins period? Or Give an account of Socio, political, economic, religious and cultural conditions of post Satavahana period? (Almost same administrative system for Satavahanas also) Vishnukund administration: Vishnukunds believed that by serving the feet of Sriparvatha swamy they came to power. They carved the name sri parvatha on their coins. This speaks about their humility and loyalty. Vishnukunds earned fame on account of proper and popular rule. Because of their proper life, monks, orphans, beggars, disease – ridden persons, distress persons etc., also used to earn in just manner. Extended protection to Brahmins and their employees. Unlimited belief in Brahmins. Brahmins were donated servants and servant maids, cots, chairs, travel equipments, food and water, buildings and jewellery. Girls were also donated. Madhava Varma always used to serve at the feet of his parents. From these, it could be understood that the Vishnukunds desired people’s welfare, and hence, people enjoyed comfort and happiness under their rule. After the Satavahanas, only Vishnukunds get the credit of ruling an extensive empire in the Deccan. For nearly 50 years, the States of Maharashtra, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh used to be under their rule. As they ruled such a vast empire, they assumed the title ‘Mahaaraaja’. Vishnukunds provided protection toall types of people. Vishnukunds’ titles were – Sakala Bhuvanaikasraya, Janasraya, Satyasraya, Uttamasraya and Vikramasraya. Accordingly later period Chalukyan rulers also wore the titles that end with ‘asraya’. Kakatiyas referred to Madhava Varma as their dynastic founder. The kings of Pithapuram and Velamas also mentioned the same thing in their records. Vishnukunds were known for their just rule. ‘Divyalu’ mean noble things. Madhava Varma considered the legal duties as Divyalu. When a chariot of a Prince has, due to un-mindfulness, gone over the son of a lady selling tamarind and the boy got killed, Madhava Varma has imposed death sentence for the Prince. Becoming happy over this, Malleeshwara Swami made the gold rain at Bezawada and gave life to the Prince and the son of a lady selling tamarind. This was found in the inscriptions. The same details are mentioned in later day literary works, Nachikethopaakhyanam, Prabhodha Chandrodayam, Panchatantram ,etc. In that way, Vishnukunds, by strength, truth and sacrifice and such good qualities, earned fame. In that way they displayed their splendor more thatn the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Madhava Varma had the tile ‘Hiranyagarbha’. Vishnukuds were the first local Sudras of Telangana who performed Hiranyagarbha ceremony. In the Vishnukund kingdom, the king was all powerful and a despot. In administrative materials, his was the final decision. However, the king’s decisions were in accordance with the opinion and welfare of the people. Even the opinion of counsel of minsters were given due place in the king’s court. Sometimes, they even used to install the king on the throne it seems Madhava Varma has imposed death sentence to his son only after discussing the matter with the legal luminaries. Vishnukunds used to provide shelter to warriors and employees. Vishnukunds kingdom was divided into provinces. Administrative division of kingdom: Provinces – Vishayas – villages. Rashtra was governed by Rashtrika. Vishaya was governed by Vishayadhipathi. Provinces of Vishnukund kingdom: Paraki Rashtra, Plekki Rashtra, Karma Rashtra, and Kalinga Rashtra. Vishayas of Vishnukund kingdom: Grudhra nadi Vishaya, Netrapati (Nethravadi) etc. King’s son was appointed as Yuvaraja for some parts of the kingdom. Vishnukunds had feudatory states under their control. They made matrimonial alliances with the feudatories.   King was assisted by Yuvaraja, Mahaamathya, Amaathya, Intelligence Officer, Secret Adviser and such other officials. For the protection of kingdom, Vishnukunds constructed forts. The newly constructed forts were named in such a way that, the names gave meaning similar to Amarapuram, the first capital. Indrapala Nagaram in Ramannapet taluk, Nalgonda district. Indrakeeladri in Bezawada, (Viajayawada). Indur in Nizamabad. Indur and Keesaragutta were their local settlements. The Amarabad fort of Vishnukunds is the biggest fort in Telugu country. The length of the wall is around 200 Kilometers. The wall was constructed to protect the Vishnukund kingdom from Pallava invasions. Economic Development: Villages – self sufficient. Kings took steps for the development of agriculture. Brahmins were donated farmers, some servants and maid servants. Thus the agrahara lands were brought under cultivation. Dug many wells and canals. Nivarthana – land measuring unit. (like acres / hectares) Domestic and foreign trade. Coins found at – Yeleshwaram, Bhuvanagiri, Sultanabad (in Kareemnagar) in Telagnana. Bojjanna konda, Elamanchili (in Vishakhapatnam), Andhra Pradesh. Nasik, Kanhapur, and Nagpur in Maharashtra. Brahmagiri in Madhyapradesh. Trade: Internal trade was carried on in the places where the coins were found. Internal trade ports – Bejawada, Amaravathi, Motupalli, Ghantasala, Koduru, Alampuram-Kudalisangham and others on the banks of river Krishna. From these ports – Now and then foreign trade. External trade has grown after the occupation of Vengi from the Salankayanas and the kingdom of Kalinga. Ship mark on the coins. Madhava Varma II’s title – Trisamdradhipati. All these indicate importance of foreign trade. From eastern coast foreign trade with Burma, Siam, Cambodia, China, Japan, Ceylone, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Malaya, Arkan and western countries, such as Egypt, Rome, Greece etc. Motupalli, and Kodur – Eastern ports. At Kudalisanghameshwaram near Alampur, a gold coins of Roman Emperor Constantine (306 A.D. – 337 A.D.) was found. This coin was found along with some other coins. Krishna –Thungabhadra doab region was centre for foreign trade and commerce even before the Vishnukunds and this continued even during the Vishnukund period. According to Fa-Hien, during the beginning decades of the 5^th century A.D., shells were also used as currency in the Vishnukund kingdom. According to Huantsang full size golden statues of Buddha were there at Sriparvatha. These statues were not found. But archaeologists found copper statues of Buddha at Buddham and Amaravathi. Size – 1 inch to 5 inches. A snuff box made of cast iron and in the shape of mango bud found at Keesaragutta. Size – 7 centimeters Economy of those times was strong. All sections of people lived happily. Vishnukund Society: Vishnukundin rulers adhered to Varnashrama Dharma. Govinda Varma respected Varnashrama Dharma. Gupthas were reason for it. Brahmins and Kshatriyas had greater respect. Vishnukund rulers took titles – ‘Parama Brahmanya’ and ‘Brahma Kshathra’. Hiranya garbha ceremony. Vaishyas were indulged in internal and external trade. Sudras – Carpenters, Sculptors, and handloom weavers and others. Purushmedha – Male persons were sacrificed. Slavery was there.. People revered their parents. Madhava Varma was best example. Vishnukund Culture Followed Vedic religion. Sriparvatha Swamy was their family deity. Their cities names resembled the name of abode of Indra, Amaravathi. Vishnukunds worshipped Lord Shiva. Built many Shiva temples. Keesaragutta temple was built by Vishnukunds. After every victory, Madhava Varma constructed a Ramalingeshwara temple. Titles – Parama Maheshwara (Worshipped Lord Shiva). Parama Brahmanya (Respected Brahmanical religion). In Samudra Guptha’s Allahabad inscription – ‘Prama bhattaraka pada nudjyatasya’ was found. In Vishnukund inscriptions – ‘Sri parvatha swami pada nudhyatsya’ = Worshipping the feet of Sriparvatha Swami. Parama Bhattaraka Devi – Name of wife of Govinda varma, Vishnukund king. Parama Bhattaraka Devi – Name of a Goddess worshipped by Gupthas. Chandravathi /Sandravathi – Daughter of sister of Chandra Guptha -1. Guptha maheshwara temple was constructed by Chandra Maheshwara devi. It is located near Uma Maheshwara temple. Srisailam = Sriparvatha. Vakatakas were the relatives of Gupthas. Because of this, Vakatakas patronized only Brahmanical Vedic religion. Vakataka’s influence might have fallen on Vishnukunds. Vishnukunds have given more importance to Vedic Brahmanical religion. Due to the influence of Gupthas and Vakatakas, vishnukunds got sanskritised and followed only Vedic-Brahmanical religion.   Vedic Puranic Religion Vishnukunds’ names related to Vedic and Vaishnavite faiths. From the beginning Vishnukunds worshipped Sri Parvatha Swamy / Sri Saila Mallikharjuna swamy. Sriparvatha Padanudyanam = Worshipping the feet of Sriparvatha Swami. (By worshipping the feet of feet of Sriparvatha Swami, they got the power to rule their people), But the other aspects like their names and their city names indicate that they were the followers of Vaishnavism. On Vishnukund coins they carved out the name ‘Sri Parvatha’. Uma Maheshwara temple is located in the Amrabad mandal of Mahabubnagar district. Uma Maheshwara temple is depicted on their coins. Amrabad / Uma Maheshwara temple is considered as the Northern gate way of Srisaila temple. SriShaila Mallikharjuna also became famous with that name during Vishnukund period only.   483 A.D. – With the orders of Madhava Varma III, in his 33^rd regnal year, idol installation of war drum and Dhanthamukha swamy (Ganapathi) have taken place. Venkaiah / Ganapathi idol was there outside the Amrabad village. Nearby this idol, Venkaiah bavi and ruins of Shiva Parvathi temple are there. War drum is now in the compound of Uma Maheshwara temple. Inscriptions state that Govinda Varma had constructed several ‘Divayatanas’. The temples that were constructed during the vishnukund period were located in Amrabad mandal, the early capital of Vishnukunds, located in Nallamala forests, under the waterfall and in caves. Vanakeswaram principle deity was Shambhu. Andandagotris / Kandara Kings worshipped Shambhu. Andanda Gotris were the contemporaries of Vishnukunds. They ruled the areas east to Vishnukund kingdom. One such Vanakeshwaram is there in Amrabad mandal. Avanitalantavati was the name of a Kandara Priness. The name also indicates Amrabad plateau. Akkanna Madanna temples. – Actually these temples were constructed by Vishnukund king Madhava Varma II. Akkanna – Madanna Caves in Kanakadurga group of Temples on Indrakeeladri at Bezwada / Vijayawada, The temples of Keesaragutta, Maheshwara Temple on the outskirts of Hyderabad are said to have built by Akkanna – Madanna. But actually these temples were built by Vishnukund king Madhava Varma II. As there are similarities in promoting Hinduism, the name of Madhava Varma might have been taken for Akkanna – Madanna of 17^th Century.   Madhava Varma II built many temples dedicated to Ramlingeshwara. Whenever he won a battle, he constructed those temples. In that way, we have Ramalingeshwara temple at Velpuru in, in Sattanapalli taluk, of Guntur dist., and Keesara gutta temple are receiving worships till today.   In the Sthala Purana of Uma Maheshwara temple there is a reference of Lord Rama. Foot prints o fRama are there to the south of Uma Maheshwara temple. From this it is clear that, in the beginning it was a Ramalingeshwara temple.   Pallaveshwara Temple – Located to the North of Uma Maheshwara temple. It was on the way to Munnanoor. Pallavas invaded on Vishnukund kingdom twice or thrice. Two commemorate this Pallavas constructed Pallaveshwara temple.   Taking que from Madhava varma II, as marks ofor the several victories that he achieved, he made installation of Shivalings on Keesaragutta a the rate of one for each victory. As the Vishnukunds were Vaishnavas, Sivalingas are called Ramalings. The same practice was followed by Eastern Chalukyas king Vijayadithya II, who as a mark of his 108 victories built 108 Bhimeshwara temples. Madhava Varma II was described as ‘Snanapanyodaka pavithrikrita sirshah’ (the one whose head was purified by the sacred waters). From this it is learnt that during his time, pilgrimages and bathing in sacred waters assumed great importance. Vikramendra varma donated Regonta village as devabhoga to Triyambhakanatha temple of God Somagirishwara Natha in Netrapati vishaya. Vishnukunds also donated along with villages, lands, old charitots, horses, cows and cots, arts, water food, houses, ornaments, girls and thousands of servants. Vishnukunds performed several sacrifices and ritual. Madhava Varma II had a reputation of Performing sacrifices such as ‘Ekadashashwamedha’, Avabritha, Avadhauta, Jagatkalmasha, Agnistoma, bahuswarna, Purushmedha, Vajapeya Shodarajasurya, ‘Prajapathyaneku paundarika sata sahasrayojino’. The practice of donating thousand so servants and girls and sacrificing men in the yagnas indicate the prevailing inequalities in the then society. The avabritha bathing ghat present in Munnanoor fort, is still seen as a great memory of the sacrifices performed by the Vishnukunds.   Buddhism: By the first phase of Vishnukund rule, Buddhism had huge spread in the society. The first generation of Vishnukund rulers, in order to respect the majority opinion, have patronized Buddhism, though they themselves were the followers of Vedic religion. Govinda Varma had donated in his 37^th regnal year, on the full moon day of Vaishakha month, for providing light, sandal flowers, dhwaja water, food, sleep, arama, grasa, medicine and other essentials to Themaha vihara built by queen Paramabhattarika, wife of Govinda Varma. Themaha vihara was located in Indrapala nagara. Donation was made to Dasabala bali, who was well versed in 18 branches of Buddhist dharma. The donation ceremony was convened in Penkaparra village. Here Govinda varma addressed the 14^th arya sangha. Village of Enmandala was also donated to them. 566 A.D. – Vikramednra Varma donated Irrundero village to Themaha vihara. Prithivi mula, uncle of Govinda Varma, had Tokhalikhata Maha Vihara, in the capital Gunapasa puram, East Godavari district. Hari Varma, son of Prithivi mula, constructed a Maha Vihara at Gunapasa puram. To this Maha vihara, Prithivi Mula donated Katta cheruvu village. Prithvi mula also built Sekya Bhikshu Vihara near Tatikonda.   Incriptions are informing that Govinda Varma had installed many beautiful Maha Viharas and Vikramendra Varma had made donations to the sacred Buddhist monk samghas were existing in different areas. It is clear that early Vishnukund rulers had constructed Aramas, Viharas on the four sides of their kingdom. Govindaraja Vihara is located in Chaithanya puri colony in the surroundings of Hyderabad. This belongs to Hinayana sect of Buddhism. Buddhist ruins at Keesaragutta and Kondapuram. Arama, Stupa and Viharas at Phanigiri and Gajulabanda in Nalgonda district. Sthupa and Arama at Nelakondapalli in Khammam district. 2011 A.D. – Excavations were conducted at Phanigiri. Here six Aramas have come to light. Rooms were discovered in each Arama. Saleshvara vihara was renovated by Vishnukunds. It was built by Ekshavaku kings. Located in Amrabad mandal, Mahabub Nagar district. On the northern left bank of river Krishna. Tucked in the hills of Nallamala forests. Ekshwaku period structures were built with bricks sized 18 X 10 X 2 ½ inches. We can see constructions with these bricks. The constructions after Ekshwaku period were built with bricks sized 10 X 10 X 2 ½ inches. We can see constructions of these bricks also. Rock structures and ancient Telugu-Kannada inscriptions also found here. In Andhra Pradesh – Buddhist constructions were there at Jaggayyapeta, Salihundam, Ramatirtham, Thotlakonda, Bojjanakonda, Buddham and other places, but most of these sites were there already. However, in respect of these, extension activities have been taken up on a large scale during the Vishnukund period.

Write about the spread of Buddhism and Jainism in Telangana region

Write about the spread of Buddhism and Jainism in Telangana region? The Buddhism and Jainism which were started in North East India, in no time spreaded to South India also. In Telangana many Buddhist and Jain settlements were there. Buddhism had more following than Jainism in Telangana region. Shaatavaahana kings, Ekvakus, Vishnukunds, Vakatakas patronized Buddhism. After this period the patrinisation was limited. Some of Badami Chalukyas, Kalyani Chalukyas, Kakatiyas, Eastern Chalukyas, and Vijayanagara kings patronized Buddhism. Here point to be noted it, there were no quarrels between Jains and Buddhists. Buddhism flourished in South during Shaatavaahana period. Common people also followed Buddhism. 1. Tirumalagiri, 2. Ramireddy Palli 3. Phanigiri 4. Dhoolikatta etc. places Shaatavahana period Sthupas, Chaithyas and Viharas are found. Due to recentment on Vedic religion, people started following Buddhism. It was a revolutionary religion which was followed like a movement. In Haala’s ‘Gaatha Saptha Shati’, Worship of Buddha’s feet was mentioned. Gouthamiputhra Shaatakarni and his mother made many donations to Buddhists. Ekshvaku kings also patronized Buddhism. Buddhism spread rapidly during the reign of Matariputhra Veerapurusha Dutta. Nagarjuna Konda became a Buddhist center. Due to the influence of Mahaayaana Buddhism, Buddha started to be worshiped in idol form. Buddha, a socio-religious reformer became God and later he was made one of the incarnations of Lord Vishnu.

Sources for Chalukyan period

Sources for Chalukyan period Rich archaeological and literary sources are available for the reconstruction of Chalukyan history. Mainly stone and copper plate inscriptions. From Kubja Vishnuvardhana to Vishnuvardhana V –names of 3 generations on the inscriptions. Donor name, his father name and grandfather name. No extra information is available. From Gunaga Vijayadhithya / Vijayadithya III (Eastern Chalukyan king)time we get more information in the inscriptions. Saluru inscription was issued by Gunaga Vijayadhithya. In this inscription we can find the chronology of the earlier rulers, their ruling period, events worth mentioning. (848 – 892 C.E.) Neelagudi Inscription was issued by Gunaga Vijayadhithya / Vijayadhithya III in the year 866 A.D.. According to this inscription, Gunaga Vijayadhithya / Vijayadhithya III was the feudatory of Amoghavarsha 1 of Rashtrakuta dynasty.   Sanjan Copper plate inscription was issued in the year 872 A.D. According to this inscription, unlike the other feudatories, Gunaga Vijayadithya III cleaned the walking path of Amoghavarsha. Kopparam inscription 631 A.D. – According to this inscription Pulakesi has referred to Vishnuvardhana as the heir apparent (Yuvaraja – Crown prince). Pulakesi II had conquered coastal Andhra. Cheepurupalli inscription 641 A.D. – According to this inscription Vishnuvardhana has assumed the title of Maharaja and carried on the rule. Aihole inscription – It is the most important source to know about the greatness of Pulakesi II of Badami Chalukyan dynasty. Aihole inscription was composed by Ravikeerthi, Pulakesi II’s minister of war. It was composed in Sanskrit. Kollipara copper plate inscription of Vemulavada Chalukyan king Arikesari I. 8^th Century A.D. This inscription is giving details about his administration. Kuruvagattu stone inscription is found in Mahaboobnagar. 8^th Century A.D. It was issued by Beeragruha, second son of Vindayadhithya yuddhamalla of Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty. Vemulavada copper plate inscriptions of Arikesari II. Arikesari II ruled in the 1^st half of 5^th century. These inscriptions are giving information about the developmental activities from Yuddhamalla to Arikesari. Chennur Copper Plate inscription (941 A.D.). According to this inscription Yuddhamalla I made an attack o Vijayadhithya, the Mudigonda Chalukyan king. Vijayadhithya opposed Yuddhamalla I. Vijayadhithya sought the help of Arikesari II of Vemulavada chalukyan dynasty. Arikesari II offered shelter to Vijayadhithya and made him the ruler of Chennur. Kurkyala inscription was written by Jayavallabha in the year 940 A.D. Jayavallabha was the brother of famous Kannada poet Pampa. Pampa was the court poet of Arikesari II. According to this inscriptions Pampa authored Aadipuraana 941 A.D. Parbhani copper plate inscription 966 A.D. was issued during the time of Arikesari III. According to this inscription Arikesari III’s Subahdar constructed Jain temples at Repaka and made land grants to it.   Literary Sources: Vikramarjuna Vijayam – written by Pampa in Kannada. It is a prominent work during the time of Vemulavada Chalukyas. Pampa was patronized by Arikesari II (930 A.D.- 941 A.D.), while he wrote this work. * Arikesar II was praised in this work. * Relation with the Rashtrakutas was discussed. Yashasthilaka a champu kavya was written by Somadeva Suri. Yashasthilaka is also called as Yashodhara Charithra. Somadeva Suri was a jain scholor. It is an important source to know the history of the last rulers of Vemulavada Chalukya kings. Religionus doctrines of Jainism. * Religious and social conditions during Vemulavada Chalukya kings. * Some political aspects. Neethikaavyaamrutha was also authored by Somadeva suri. It is also an important book to know the details of Vemulavada Chalukyas. Mogala Cheruvu inscription + Krivvaka inscription are the only 2 donors of copper plate inscriptions were seen during Mudigonda Chalukya period. In these inscriptions we can find details about the early history of this dynasty. Mogala Cheruvu inscription was issued by Kusumayudha IV. This inscription mentioned Mudigonda Chalukyas as ‘Manayavasa gothrulu’, ‘Harataputrulu’. The kingdom was the result of Kaushika’s prasadam ruled by Saptamatruk. They received Varaha Lanchana by the mercy of Narayana. According to this inscription Mudigonda Chalukyas had relation with Ayodhya. Krivvaka inscription was issued by Kusumayudha IV. Giving information about Mudigonda Chalukyas’ chronology. Bezawada copper plate inscription – Kusumayudha had donated Kukiparru village to Potamaiah, a Brahmin. Narayani Copper Plate inscription (1004 A.D.) tells us about the system of administration of Chalukya Gonagarasa, who ruled Warangal region. Koravi inscription (935 A.D.) also an important one. Coins Gold, Silver and Copper coins were in circulation. Some Gold coins with the name ‘Chalukya Chandra’ were issued by Eastern Chalukyan king Shakti Varma 999A.D. – 1011 A.D.) These coins were found at Arkan and Siam. Gadya – Gold coin during Chalukyan period. It used to be of 88 grains weight. Various gold coins were there. Rajanarayana gadya, Surabhi gadya and tyaga gadya. Mada – Silver coin during the Chalukyan period. Kasu – Copper coin during the Chalukyan period.

Give an account of Socio, political, economic, religious and cultural conditions of Vemulavada Chalukya period

Give an account of Socio, political, economic, religious and cultural conditions of Vemulavada Chalukya period Give an account of Socio, political, economic, religious and cultural conditions of Vemulavada Chalukya period Military Organisation of Chalukyas Chalukyan emperors used to lead their armies during the wars. Senapathi / Maha baladhikrutha – Great Commander – in – Chief. Kshatriyas became famous as soldiers with courage and bravery. Due to Chalukya, Pallava, Chola, Rashtrakuta and Kalyani Chalukyas conflicts, there used to be constant wars. As a result, the need for soldiers increased and persons with courage and bravery from all castes were taken and appointed as soldiers and commanders-in-chief. Because of wars, the emperor, out of the income that he received and the income that was received from war lootings, greater portion was spent for army maintenance. Chalukyan feudatories used to come as and when needed, with their armies and wage wars for the protection of the Chalukyan kingdom. Hence, the main strength of the Eastern Chalukyan kingdom was the forces of their feudatory chiefs. Foot soldiers, elephant forces and naval force have been main organs. Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II is giving details about six types of army organisations.

1. Mula or Hereditary force.
2. Bhritya or those who accompanied the soldiers.
3. Sreni or Guild based feudatory forces.
4. Mitra or armies of the friendly kingdoms.
5. Atavka or forces of the forest based tribes.
6. Amitra or captured forces.

Durgadhipathi – Forts were under the control of Durgadhipathi. The responsibility of protection of a fort fully rested on Durgadhipathi. Some army used to be under the control of Durgadhipathi. They were paid either in cash or allotted the revenue of some villages.   Chalukyan Age Economic Development Agriculture – Irrigation – Crops – Land Revenue – Other Taxes Agriculture increased. New lands were brought under plough. As Agraharas were donated to the Brahmins, they became landlords. Shudras cultivated their lands and remained loyal to them. Land was divided into 4 categories for the convenience of fixing the tax.

1. Wet / low lying land.
2. Dry lands
3. Sandy lands (Garuvu)
4. Garden lands

Land tax was fixed based on the water facility, land fertility and crop yield. Commercial crops mentioned the Chalukyan inscriptions: Coconut, betel leaf, betel nut gardens, mango, sugarcane, cotton, grams and pulses.   Dug wells, constructed tanks and canals for the pooling of water resources. Rich people, feudatories, wealthy farmers used to help in the construction of tanks and their maintenance. Chaita tank and Bhima samudram tank were mentioned in the inscriptions of Arikesari I. Those tanks are supplying water to agriculture fields even today. Chalukyan age literature Telugu language started flourishing. Most of the Chalukyan and Chola inscriptions were in verse form. Every verse inscription turned out to be a masterpiece. As per Chebrolu inscriptions, the literary styles of those days were Marga and Deshi. Nanne Choda was the greatest poet of Chalukyan period. Nanne Choda’s title – Kavi Rajashekhara. The book authored by Nanne Choda – Kumara Sambhavam. On his book the influence of Kannada language and literary traditions was high. Official Language of various kingdoms Satavahana – Prakrit. Ikshwakus – Prakrit. Vishnukunds – Sanskrit. Eastern Chalukyas – Telugu. Language of Chalukyan inscriptions – More in Sanskrit. Some in Kannada and Telugu. Badami Chalukyans issued inscriptions in Kannada language. Chalukyas of Renadu area were the first rulers to issue inscriptions in Telugu language. Vipparla inscription of Jayasimha Vallabha was the first Telugu inscription issued by Eastern Chalukyas. It was the first Eastern Chalukyan inscription also. Renati Cholas, Western Chalukyas and their feudatories, Bana kings used Telugu language. During those days Prakrit words got mixed into Telugu language inscriptions extensively. Inscriptions language could not be understood by us. The word ‘Reddi’ was used in the form of ‘Rattagudi’, ‘Rattadi’ and ‘Rattodi’. ‘Purugulu’ appeared as ‘puruvullu’. ‘Rachuvasu’ means destroyer (naashanam cheyuvadu). For plural number were are adding ‘lu’, during those days ‘gudulu’ was written as ‘gudlu’ and ‘madulu’ was mentioned in ‘madlu’. ‘Padamata’ was written as ‘paruta’. Instead of Chola and Choda they used ‘Chora’. Different types of sentence writing was there in the Macherla inscription of Jayasimha Vallabha I and Potladurthi-Malepadu inscription of Renati Cholas. By the time of Gunaga Vijayadhithya Telugu language had the influence of Sanskrit language. Poetry writing started with local metre, guided by Matra and Gana. Tharuvoja in Panduranga inscription. Seesa in Kandukuru and Dharmavaram inscriptions Madhyakkara in Bezawada inscriptions.   Gradually Telugu language attained ‘Kavya’ shape. Chalukyan kings greatly contributed for Telugu literary development.   Mallikharjuna Panditharadhya has authored Shiva Thathva Saaram. Though it consists of more than 400 Kanda verses, it is considered as Sataka only. Hence the credit of starting Sataka style in Telugu goes to Mallikharjuna Pandithaaraadhya. Pampa Kavi’s Mallikharjuna Vijayam was the first Kavya in Kannada. Pampa belonged to the Chalukyan age. Tikkana Somayaji was the greatest poet not only among the Chalukyan poets, but among all the Telugu poets. He was not only a great minister and a poet. He was a great cultural movement. In literary field, he has a remarkable place. Bhaskara mantri was the elder brother of Tikkana. Ketana was Tikkana’s elder father. Bhaskara Mantri authored Bhaskara Ramayanam. Ketana wrote ‘Andhra Bhashaa Bhooshanam’ , ‘Dashakumara Charithra’ and ‘Vignaaneshwara’. Marana wrote Markandeya Purana. Tikkana wrote Nirvachanothara Ramayanam. It was dedicated to Manumasiddi. Palkuriki somanatha wrote Basava Puranam, Panditharaadhya Charithra. Narayana battu helped Nannaya in writing ‘Andhra Mahabhaaratha’. Chalukyan Art and Architecture Royal courts and Tempes of Chalukyan times had been the centers for the arts of music, dance, architecture and sculpture. At Badami, early Chalukyan rulers constructed many cave temples. Prominent temples came up at Aihole and Pattadakal in Karnataka. 70 temples at Aihole area and 10 Temples at Pattadakal have been constructed. They erected a rectangular platform and over it row of pillars was arranged which could bear the load of roof. Wall were not there on four sides. This style was called as Sandhagaram. This structure might have been used as the meeting place of village elders and people. In Mahaboob Nagar district of present day Telangana, at Alampur Navabrahma temples were constructed. Among them, only six had compound walls around them. Remaining temples stay outside this compound wall. The names of all these temples had the word ‘Brahma’ at their end, but all of them are Shiva temples. Amonth the nine, Vishwabrahma temple was the biggest one. Even today, these temples are receiving acts of worship. At Vemulavaada 9^th and 10^th centuries temples. Bhimeshwara temple at Vemulavada was built by Baddega in 9^th century.

What are the sources to Kakatiya History

What are the sources to Kakatiya History History of Kakatiyas Magallu inscription 956 A.D. – Issued by Daanaarnava, Eastern Chalukyan king. Giving information about the donation of a village named Magallu to a Brahmin by Kakartya Gundana. Anumakonda 1000 Pillar Temple inscription 1063 A.D. – Issued by Rudra Deva. Rudra Deva declared independence. Draksharaamam Temple inscription 1158 A.D. – Issued by Inangalal Brahmi Reddy. This inscription is giving information regarding Prola II’s son Rudra Deva’s accession to the throne. Bayyaram Tank inscription 1219 A.D. – Bayyaram Tank inscription or Bayyaram Cheruvu inscription was issued by Mailamba, sister of Ganapathi Deva. This inscription is giving information about digging a tank in Bayyaram village, Illendu Mandal, Khammam district, Telangana by Mailamba. Motupalli inscription 1244 A.D. – Also known as Motupalli abhaya varthaka shaasanam. Motupalli inscription was issued by Ganapathi Deva. This is giving information regarding the remissions to the foreign merchants. Malkapuram inscription 1261 A.D. was issued by Ganapathi Deva. Vidhya Mandapas were mentioned in this inscription. Chandupatla inscription of 1289 A.D. was issued by Puvuula Mummadi, servant of Rudrama Devi. After Rudramadevi’s death, for the save journey of her soul to the heaven, Puvvula Mummadi made land donation to local Somanatha temple. Tripuranthakam inscription of 1291 A.D. This inscription was issued by Kayastha Ambadeva at Nellore. This inscription is giving information about Kayastha Ambadeva’s victories. Salakalaveedu inscription was issued by Prathapa Rudra II in the year 1317 A.D. Information – By the orders of Prathapa Rudra II, Deveri Nayaka donated Sakalaveedu village of Eruvabhumi to God Kaveri Ranganatha. This donation was made after the victory over Pandyas. This inscription mentions many taxes also. Kolunupudi inscription was issued by Prathapa Rudra II in the year 1321 A.D. This inscription is mentioning the donation made by Prathapa Rudra II to Chennakeshava Swamy and Narasimha Swamy temples. Kakatiya Period Books and their authors Pandithaaraadhya Charithra was written by Palkuriki Somanatha. This book is in Telugu language. Information – Details of conditions Shaivism and other religions during the Kakatiya period. Neethisaaram / Neethi Saastra Muktaavali was written by Badden. This book is in Telugu language. Information – Explains State Craft. (Raajaneethi and Raaja Dharma). Shivayoga Saaram was written by Kolanu Ganapathi Deva. This book is in Telugu language. This book is important source to know the history of Induluri Nayaka kings. Kreedaabhiraamam was written by Vinukonda Vallabharaya. This book is in Telugu language. This book describes the life and conditions of the people living in the Warangal. Prathaapa Rudreeyam / Prathaapa Rudra Yasho Bhooshanam was written by Vidhyanaatha in Sanskrit language. Vidhyanaatha was the court poet of Prathapa Rudra II. Nruthya Rathnaavali was written by Jayapa Senani in Sanskrit language. This book is regarding dance. Andra Mahaabhaaratam – Some chapters of Mahaabhaarath were translated into Telugu by Thikkana Somayaji. This translated work is known as Andhra Mahaabhaaratham. Thikkana Somayaaji was Ganapathi Deva’s friend Manumasiddi’s court poet. Manumasiddi was a king of Nellore. Nirvachanothara Raamaayanam was written by Thikkana Somayaji in Telugu language. Siddheshwara Charithra was written by Kase Sarvappa. It may not be a Kakathiya period book, but gives some information regarding the society of Kakathiya Period.

Give an account of the achievements of Ganapati Deva

Give an account of the achievements of Ganapati Deva of Kakatiya dynasty “Ganapathi Deva is one of the greatest rulers of Medieval India”._ M. Rama Rao and P.V. Parabrahma Sastry. Ganapathi Deva ruled for more than six decades. During his life time Delhi Sultanate was established. Ganapathi Deva’s contemporaries:

• All the slave dynasty kings and Jallaluddin Khilji were his contemporaries.
• Jaitrapala, Singama and Mahadeva of Yadava dynasty, Devagiri.
• Vira Bhallala I, Narasimha II of Hoyasala Dynasty, Dwara Samudra.

During his life time only in Northern India, Hindu political authority had suffered a serious setback due to the Turkish invasions and due to the defeat of Rajput confederacy. Muslim kings did not attack on South India during the reign of Ganapathi Deva. Due to this reason Ganapathi Deva could actively expand his kingdomin Andhra and Deccan regions. His period witnessed glorious progress in every field. Due to this reason his period was unique in the History of Telugu people and Kakatiyas. His armies, Officials, people felt fortunate and proud due to his uninterrupted military achievements. Ganapathi Deva was the son of Mahadeva and Bayyamba. Ganapathi Deva was a minor when Ganapathi Deva’s father was killed by Yadava Kings. He was imprisoned by the Yadava king. Recharla Rudra kept the Kakatiya kingdom intact and with his diplomatic skill, he got Ganapathi Deva released from the captivity of Yadava Kings and enthroned Ganapathi Deva. Ganapathi Deva expanded his kingdom in Coastal Andhra. Military Achievements of Ganapathi Deva:

1. Kakatiyas first attacked on Velanadu. Prithvishawara, the master of Coastal Andhra was the ruler of Velanadu when Ganapathi Deva attacked on it. Ganapathi Deva defeated Prithvishwara. Source: Bejawada epigraph of 1206.
2. Kolan (Kolleru)
3. Kota family (Prakasham Dist.)
4. Konidena Telugu Cholas of Nellore, Kadapa, Chengalpat.
5. Dharanikota
6. Diviseema Ayya Kings Pinachoda and his son Jayapa. Though they were defeated, recognizing the abilities and caliber of the Ayya kings, Ganapathi Deva allowed them to rule their kingdom as his subordinates. Ganapathi Deva married two daughters of Pinachoda, Naraamba and Peramba. Young and dynamic Jayapa was taken into the army of Ganapathi Deva and was made Gajasahini (head of elephantry wing). Ganapathi Deva’s military general assumed the title ‘Divichoorakara’ to mark his victory over Divi rulers.
7. 1206 – Velanaadu ruler Prithvishwara started disobeying Ganapathi Deva. Ganapathi Deva defeated him, occupied his Velanaadu Kingdom and appointed Jayapa as the governor of Velanaadu. Thus Godavari region came under the sway of Ganapathi Deva. – Source: Srikakulam inscription of 1206.
8. 2017 – Fight with Cholas / Kulottunga III. Chola King Kulottunga III invaded on Nellore Telugu Cholas and defeated Manumasiddi in 1178. Kulottunga III installed Nallasiddi on the throne. Nallasiddi ruled as the subordinate of Kullottuna III. In 1208, Tikkana Somayaji, the prime minister and court poet of Manumasiddi visited Ganapati Deva and requested for help to enthrone Manumasiddi. Ganapathi Deva invaded on Nellore and enthroned Manumasiddi. Tikkana Somayaji dedicated his work ‘Nirvachanotthara Ramayanamu’ to Ganapathi Deva.
9. After successfully restoring Manumasiddi, Ganapathi Deva invaded and defeated Kalinga king. Induloori Somayya, the military general of Ganapati Deva played a prominent role in this victory. Induloori Somayya was appointed as the governor of Kolanu.
10. 1238 – Again for second time Kakatiya king attacked on Kalinga and defeated Narasimha Deva.

Ganapati Deva handed over the throne to Rudrama Devi and continued to guide her.  

Give an account of the achievements of Rudramba or Rudrama Devi

Give an account of the achievements of Rudramba or Rudrama Devi Rani Rudrama Devi 1259 to 1289 AD was one of the most prominent rulers of the Kakatiya dynasty on the Deccan Plateau, being one of the few ruling queens in Indian history. She shines gloriously in the medieval history of South India. She was the only child of King Ganapathi Dava who ruled at Warangal the capital of Kakateeya Dynasty that had sway over entire Telangana ( Present Andhra Pradesh State) and most of the Andhra provinces during 13 th century. Kakatiyas of Warangal are one of the major dynasties that ruled over Andhra and shaped its history and civilization. The foundation of kakatiya empire was laid in land lying between Godavari and Krishan on a hillock called Hanumakonda. The Story of the builders of the empire goes back to the eight and ninth centuries of Christian Era. With Orugallu(now known as Warangal) as their capital the kaktiyas ruled over the Telugu country from about 1150 AD to 1323 AD. Rudrama Devi was born, as Rudramba, to King Ganapathideva (or Ganapatideva, or Ganapathi Devudu). As Ganapathideva had no sons, Rudramma was formally designated as a son through the ancient Putrika ceremony and given the male name of Rudradeva. Rudramadevi was married to Veerabhadra, Eastern Chalukyan prince of Nidadavolu. Ganapati Deva after taking advice from the illustrious Prime Minister Sivadevayya nominated Rudrama Devi as his successor in his last days. When she was only fourteen years old, Rani Rudramma Devi succeeded her father. In the first two or three years of her conjoint rule with her father, the kingdom was thrown into confusion and disorder due to Jatavarma Sundara Pandya I's invasion and the disastrous defeat of the Kakatiyas along with their allies on the battle field of Muttukur near Nellore. Though Ganapati was ultimately successful in turning back the tide of invasion, yet he suffered loss of territory end prestige and his hold over his feudatories and nobles was shaken. Under these circumstances, he retired from active politics. So the real power vested with Rani Rudrama Devi. She used to look after all the administrative matters. From various inscriptions it seems that she started ruling independently from 1261. She lost both her husband and father in 1266-1267.That was a heavy blow and she was unable to take up so much grief. She was totally devastated and it was learnt that she decided to die, but was persuaded by her nobles and ministers to look after the Kingdom.And finally she was coronated in 1269 AD. Sailing Brave In the Whirl of Attacks A lady being made a king of vast Empire was no doubt resented by some nobles and her cousins who later raised banner of revolt. Even Veera Bhadra(Her Husband) also was jealous of Rudrmadevi ruling the land. She wore male attire and sat on the throne and with iron hand ruled the kingdom keeping the enemies at bay. Pandyas and Cholas from the south Indian peninsula were also great threat and she kept them at bay with great vigour. After her accession she had to fight Harihara deva and Murarideva the cousins who revolted against the lady ruler. She had some efficient nobles like Jaganni deva and Gona Ganna reddy who helped her greatly in suppressing revolts. With regard to the external dangers, the Kalinga King Narasimha I who suffered a defeat previously at the hands of Ganapatideva, taking advantage of the distracted condition in the Kakatiya dominions, marched with his forces into the Godavari delta to recover his lost possessons. In the later part of the reign of Rudramadevi, the above provinces came back under her sway. Her commanders Poti Nayaka and Proli Nayaka fought against Kalinga Vira Bhanudeva I. son and successor of Narasimha I and his accomplices Arjunadeva, the Matsya chief of Oddadi and others and inflicted a crushing defeat on them. The Kakatiya power was thus re-established in the coastal Andhra country. But the biggest threat came from the West in the form of Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri. Rudramadevi defeated Mahadeva Raja the Seuna Yadava Ruler of Devagiri ( Daulatabad in Aurangabad District at present in Maharashtra state)who invaded Warangal ( earlier known as Orugallu or Ekasilanagaramu) fort, the capital of Kakateeya empire and chased him away. Mahadeva was desirous to take the advantage of internal unrest in the kakateya Empire coupled by a Lady at the top. But little was known to him of her valor and administrative capabilities. She crossed Godavari chasing the yadava ruler right into his territories and forced him to make peace. The Devagiri King had to pay great amount of ransom to the queen and made peace. Although such treasures gained after victory belonged to the royal house she magnanimously she distributed the wealth among her troops most graciously. In the south the Nellore kingdom came under the sway of the Pandyas and was placed under their vassals. The Kayastha chief Jannigadeva re-occupied the territories of the Nelluru kingdom and freed thus from the Pandyan sway. He and his brother Tripurarideva I (1270-72 A.D.) continued to rule the Valluru kingdom as the vassals of Rudramadevi. However with the succession of their younger brother AMBADEVA to the throne in 1272 A.D., the situation underwent a change. Ambadeva was ambitious and powerful. From the beginning, he resolved to resuscitate the fortunes of his family and carve out an independent kingdom for himself. To pursue these objects, he was in constant wars with his neighbours during his long reign of thirty-two years. With his conquests, Gandtkota, Mulikinadu, Renadu. Sakilinadu, Eruva and Pottapinadu were added to the Kayastha kingdom. He restored Manumagandagopala on the throne of Nellore and made him his vassal. The Pandyas, who attempted to restore their sway here, were defeated and driven away. As a result of this, the Pandyan suzerainty in Andhradesa came to an end. But the establishment of a strong, extensive and independent Kayastha kingdom in the southern parts, gave a jolt to the imperial authority of the Kakatiyas. Rudramadevi could not tolerate the headstrong and disloyal Ambadeva. By that time Prataprudra her Grandson become old enough to share the responsibilities of the administration. He was of great valor and extraordinary war planner. He planned a three prong attack on the Ambadeva . The intention is to weaken all his support systems so that he don’t have enough strength. Of the three , the first was led by the Old Queen Rudrama Devi and her general Mallikarjuna. However, as the recently discovered Chandupatla (Nalgonda district) grant dated 25th November, 1289 A.D. indicates, Ambadeva seems to have killed Rudrama along with Mallikarjuna Nayaka in battle in that year. At the time of battle Rani Rudrama Devi is more than 80 years old. Inspite of that old age, with a huge army which marches on her orders, she chose to step in and lead the battle to leave this world as a Veera Vanitha battling till her last breathe (Brave Lady). Adjacent Video of V6 News Channel (telugu) is about Chandupatla Epigraph.

New Update: Rare Sculptures of Rudramadevi Discovered

Two articles published in The Hindu about Rudramadevi recently according to Archaeology Survey of India (ASI) have discovered crucial sculptures in Telugu states which are very crucial to close on to the mystery of Death. The links to the Articles and important excerpts are below- The Hindu News Article dated 5th December'2017 reported discovery of Two sculptures depicting Rani Rudrama Devi, by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at Bollikunta village in Warangal district of Telangana. The discovery could possibly unravel the mystery shrouding her death. For long there was a question mark over how the courageous 13th century Kakatiya sovereign met her end, though an inscription gave the place of her passing away as Chandupatla in Nalgonda district. But these two sequential sculptures found now show that she lost her life in a fierce battle with a Kayastha chieftain called Ambadeva. “The discovery of these two stunning and elegant portrait sculptures are very significant from the archaeological research point of view and most vital for reconstruction of the bloom and gloom in the life of a brave female general, administrator, strategist, trendsetter and philanthropist ,” said D. Kanna Babu, Superintending Archaeologist, Temple Survey Project (Southern Region), ASI, Chennai. Mr. Babu said the patron and the artisan who carved the two panels appeared to have acted with farsightedness by visualising them to serve as commemorative visual aids to Rudrama Devi’s life and times for successive generations. These portraits also reveal, he said, the charismatic qualities of Rudrama Devi, such as her oval face, soft cheeks, wide eyes, slender nose and a tender pair of lips. Another News article Published on The Hindu(April 8 '2018) has reported finding of A sculptural slab carved in granite that has a life-size portrait of Kakatiya warrior queen Rudrama Devi discovered by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in the sanctum sanctorum of Trikuta temple at Bekkallu village in Siddipet district. Stating that the discovery has unravelled the mystery of her death, the officials said Rudrama Devi was killed during a war by her own subordinate chief Kayastha King Ambadeva somewhere near Warangal. Describing the sculpture, Mr. Babu said the queen’s arms and wrists are embellished with warrior shields. “She is wearing robes of a male warrior with a waist belt and has her left leg over the hanging pedal while a shield is securing her chest,” he explained. Ambadeva, the rebellion sub-ordinate chief, is in his war robes with a tightly-fixed lower garment, a waist belt and arm guards. “He escaped the blows of Rudrama Devi and overpowered the horse and harmed it. The horse falls on its face and Rudrama Devi is surprised of his sudden action of rebel. Finally, Ambadeva kills her and she attains viraswargam,” he said. However the Army of Rudrama Devi was victorious and later Prataparudra II, successor of Rudrama succeeded in completely suppressing the Kayastha revolt . Ambadeva was left with no shape and size to rethink of attacking Kakateeya Empire.

Her Rule and Patronage

Among Rani Rudramma Devi's accomplishments during her reign was the completion of Warangal Fort, begun by her father, in the Kakatiya capital of Warangal (one stone hill). Parts of the fort are still standing, including examples of distinctive Kakatiya sculpture. She worshipped goddesses. Bhadrakali, Ekaveera and Padmakshi.She captured important forts like Mulikinadu, Renadu, Eruva,Mutthapi nadu, Satti. Legend has it that due to her upbringing as a boy, Rani Rudrama was not much a connoisseur of music and art, but she was quite taken by a form of Shiva Tandavam - Perini which was extinct and it was brought back by Dr. Nataraja Ramakrishna. She found this dance more of an exercise to the soldiers and had it made part of the training of the royal force. You can watch the dance form in the adjacent video being performed by Perini Ravi Teja & Perini Venkat.The queen had no much time to pursue arts and literature during her reign. After the death of Rudramadevi most probably in a battle, Prataparudradeva II ( 1296-1323) son of her daughter Mummadamma succeeded to the throne. In fact Ganapathideva announced Prataparudra as crown prince in his last days. The Muslim invasions on South India started during his reign and finally the Kakateeya Empire came to an end. Rudrama Devi was one of the most outstanding queens in Indian History from Kakateeya dynasty and people still cherish her memories. Her Gender did not come on her way in discharging the duties of her exalted office. She took an active part in governing the country and strove hard to promote the best interests of the state. In spite of the wars which frequently disturbed the country, her people remained contented and happy under her rule. She had also a deep moat dug around it Marcopolo. the Venetian traveller who paid a visit to the kingdom probably a little later, speaks highly of her administrative qualities, benign rule and greatness. She is one among the valiant and distinguished queens such as Durgavathi of Gondwana ( During Akbars times), Rani Chinnamma of Kittur ( During East India Company’s rule), of Maharashtra ( Aurangzebs times), Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi ( During East India Company’s rule), Razia sultana ( Early period of Sultanate at Delhi) and her memory is immortal..

Give an account of the achievements of Prathapa Rudra

Give an account of the achievements of Prathapa Rudra Prataparudra -II succeeded his grandmother Rudramba in A.D.1295 and ruled till A.D.1323. He was the grandson of Rani Rudramadevi, but adapted him as her son on the advise of her father as she was not having her own son. According to the kaifiats found in Rayalaseema Kakatiya Prataparudra was an important ruler. In some records he was mentioned as Prataparudra Maharaja. . He is one of the most important and notable rulers of the Kakatiya dynasty. He was the last ruler of Kakatiya dynasty. Prataparudra-II ( Virarudra ) is one among the three greatest rulers of Kakatiya dynasty rulers. The other two were Prataparudra - I (Rudradeva) and Rudramadevi. Rudramadevi died in the month of November, 1289 CE., fighting battle against the rebel Kayastha chief Ambadeva. On the death of Rudrama, her grandson Prataparudra, who was adopted by her as son and as heir apparent on the advice of her father Ganapatideva, ascended the throne at the beginning of the year 1280 CE. Prataparudra had to fight battles throughout his reign against either the internal rebels or the external foes. A number of accounts states that Prataparudra began his rule in Dharanikota, an ancient town in Guntur distrct, before moving to Warangal It clearly indicates that kakatiyas ruled coastal Andhra and Rayalseema region uniting the entire Telugu country. King Erikal Mutthuraju, who ruled parts of Rayalaseema around 575 A.D, could be from the same Erukala tribe to which Kakatiyas are said to belong. He pushed the western border of his kingdom up to Medak and Raichur. In the reign of Kakatiya Prataparudra II, the Nellore region became part and parcel of the Kakatiya empire and lost its political significance. In the latter half of 13th century, the Cuddapah district fallen in to the hands of Ambadeva who had temporarily usurped the Kakatiya crown and ruled from Vallur, 15 Kms. from Cuddapah. Kakatiya King Prataparudra succeeded this throne after death of Ambadeva and ruled the district with Warrangal as the Capital during the opening of 14th century. Administration He introduced many administrative reforms. He divided the kingdom into 77 Nayakships. Some of these reforms were later adopted in the Vijayanagar empire. He was one of the first Telugu kings who defended the Telugu country from the onslaught of Muslim invaders. It was only after the death of Prataparudra that Muslims could enter into Telugu lands to rule the Telugu people. Historians of the Southern Nayaks note that the Palaiyakkarar system might have originated from the Kakatiya dynasty's model by Prataparudra, who similarly divided his kingdom among 77 Padmanayakas. Palaiyakkarar is the head of Palayam (a fortified district) of the Madurai Nayak kingdom. Fight against Muslim invaders In A.D.1303, the Delhi Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji sent an army to plunder the kingdom. But Prataparudra defeated them at Upparapalli in Karimnagar district. In A.D. 1310, when another army under Malik Kafur invaded Warangal and indulged in murder and mayhem around the fort, it prompted King Prataparudra to make a pact and offer an enormous amount of tribute.In A.D.1318, when Ala-ud-din Khilji died, Prataparudra withheld the tribute and asserted his independence in 1320 CE. . It provoked another invasion of the Muslims. In A.D.1321, Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq sent a large army under Ulugh Khan to conquer the Telugu country then called Tilling. He laid siege to Warangal, but owing to internal dissensions he called off the siege and returned to Delhi. Within a short period, he came back with a much bigger army. In spite of unpreparedness, Prataparudra fought bravely. For want of supplies, he surrendered to the enemy who sent him to Delhi as a prisoner, and he died on the way. King Prataparudra, who was taken as prisoner committed suicide by drowning himself in the river Narmada while being taken to Delhi.Thus ended the Kakatiya rule, opening the gates of the Telugu land to anarchy and confusion yielding place to an alien ruler. After Prataparudra got defeated and committed suicide, Tughlak appointed some muslim governers to rule erst while Kakateeya ruled regions. This was the first appearance of Muslims in the Deccan.

Write about the administrative system of Kakatiyas

Write about the administrative system of Kakatiyas Write about the administrative system of Kakatiyas Kakatiya Administration Romila Thapar – Kakatiya Administration resembles Mauryan administration. Burton Stein – Kakatiya administration resembles Segmentary State administrative system. According to majority of historians’ view Kakatiya administration was a decentralized administration. Sources for Kakatiya Administration:

1. Neethi Saara by Rudra Deva.
2. Neethi Saara Mukthavali by Baddena.
3. Purushaardha Saaram
4. Sakalaneethi Sammatham – Madiki Singana (Though he was not of Kakatiya period, he quotes few things from Kakatiya period books)

The Kakatiya polity was based on monarchical system. The Kakatiya ruler was the pivot of the entire administrative structure, yet he was not an absolute autocrat. Generally, in the process of succession, they followed the law of primogeniture and as already referred; a woman coming to the throne was a remarkable exception. The power appears to be decentralized between the ruler and the subordinates who owed allegiance to the ruler. P.V. Prabrahma Sastry rightly observes, “The peculiar type of political relationship between the Kakatiya rulers and their subordinates during the reign of nearly two centuries makes us believe that they tried to introduce a new type of polity other than imperialism. The subordinates were allowed to have their freedom in all respects except military matters. The only concern for the king was to check their overgrowth in power”. This made some scholars characterize Kakatiya polity as a feudal polity of personalized rule by a warrior elite and a socio-economic formation marked by oppression of the peasantry, economic stagnation and de-urbanization. But a critical examination proves that this image was inappropriate in the case of Kakatiya Andhradesa. Another alternative model of segmentary state suggested by Burton Stein does not appear to be applicable to the Kakatiya state. Cynthia Talbot maintains, “Stein himself excluded internal Andhra from the South Indian macro region characterized by the segmentary state and ritual sovereignty, calling Telengana, a shatter region on the borders of South India proper”. Cynthia Talbot, after a thorough discussion of the suitability of the models – feudal, segmentary and integrative, declares the Kakatiya state as best understood as a fluctuating political network composed in large part of a multitude of personalities between lords and under­lings. Some of the fibres in the fabric of Kakatiya polity united the rulers directly to their primary subordinates, others led from these subordinates to different tiers of associates in a densely ramified pattern. Connections extended horizon­tally, integrating localities spread over a wide territory, as well as vertically reaching down into villages and towns”. Cynthia Talbot is of the view that the Kakatiya polity is closely approximating to Weber’s patrimonial model of the State, i.e., personalized authority of a ruler through a class of dependent officials. R. Champakalakshmi is of the view that Cynthia Talbot has no specific model to offer for Andhra polity. Talbot views the Kakatiya polity as a regional variant of a pan-Indian complex, a dynamic and an expansionist world. There is also a view that Kakatiya polity is an integrative polity. The Kakatiya rulers were assisted by a council of ministers and a host of officers at the centre as well as the provincial and local level. They took care to see that the territorial segments were properly divided and ruled effectively by loyal officials. Mandala, Nadu, Sthala, Seema and Bhumi were the names of the territorial divisions. The Kakatiya state was a military-state ready to face the threat of internal and external enemies. The military organization of the Kakatiyas was based on Nayamkara system. In this system the ruler assigned fiefs to the Nayaks in lieu of their salaries and the Nayaks were to maintain some army for the ruler’s use. The number of soldiers, horses, and elephants that are to be maintained by the Nayak were fixed by the king as per the fiefs enjoyed by the Nayak. Apart from the army that was supplied by the Nayaks, the Kakatiyas also maintained a standing army under the control of the commanders, who were directly respon­sible to the ruler. In the military organization, forts played crucial role and the epigraphs refer to Giridurgas, like Anumakonda, Raichur, Gandikota and the Vanadurgas, like Kandur and Narayanavanam, the Jaladurgas, like Divi and Kolanu and the Sthaladurgas, like Warangal and Dharanikota. Nitisara of Prataparudra refers to the above mentioned four types of Durgas. The military organization enabled the Kakatiyas to be aggressive and rapidly expand as an Andhra power from the core region or nuclear zone of Telangana to the coastal districts and hence to Rayalaseema or South-West Andhra and to penetrate to the Tamil region also. Talbot gives importance to the strategy adopted by the Kakatiyas in patronizing warrior chiefs, and promoting martial ethos and assumption of martial epithets by the rulers. The relationships between Nayaks and rulers are marked by layers of lord-subordinate relationships loosely bound through personal loyalties of allegiance and service. Kakatiya kings took utmost care of their subjects. They honoured the feelings of local people. They were law fearing. For administrative convenience Kakatiya Kingdom was divided into

1. Central Government - Naadu
2. Provincial Government – Sthalam.
3. Village / Local Government.

  Naadu – ex: Renaadu, Paakanaadu, Kammanaadu, Sabbinaadu, Muliki Naadu were mentioned in the inscriptions. Synonyms to Naadu – Seema – ex: Gandikota seema, Sakili seema. Bhoomi – ex: Aare Bhoomi, Paadi – ex: Mettu Paadi, Mahaaraaja Paadi. Sthalam – Sthalam was the provincial unit during Kakatiya Period. Each Sthala consists of about 20 villages. Ex: Gurindaala Sthalam, Pingali Sthalam, Magathala Sthala, Gangapura Sthala were mentioned in the inscriptions. Sthalas were given to Nayankaras in lieu of their salary.   Village administration There were 12 Ayagars in a village.

1. 1. Karanam, 2. Reddy or Pedda Kaapu, 3. Talaari 4. Purohita 5. Kammari
2. 6. Kamsaali 7. Vadrangi, 8. Kummari Chaakali 10. Mangali
3. 11. Setti 12. Charmakaara

Among these 12 Aayagaards, first there were under the government service. Remaining all used to render their service to the village. These Aayagaars were given aayamu. They were given some share from the agricultural yield as a payment for their service.   King and his council of ministers exercised great control over the administrative setup. Subordinate rulers / feudatory kings were given freedom to rule based on their local system. Selections to important positions were made based on the ability irrespective of caste. The state affairs were divided into 77 Niyogas. Niyogas means departments. Each department of was under a Niyoga. Bhattara Niyogadhipathi - The supreme chief on the seventy departments. The Purushartha Saara of Shivadevayya mentioned about the Niyogas and their duties, powers etc. King presides over the council meeting. Mahaa Pradhani – Occupies second place after the King. Malyala Hemadri Reddy – PM of Ganapathi Deva. Muppidi Nayaka – PM of Prathapa Rudra II.   Mahaa Pradhani, Pradhana, Preggada, Amaathya, Manthri were important administrative officers. Along with these officers there is a reference of officers named ‘Theerthas’. Thtere were totally 18 Theerthas/ Ashtaadhasha theerthas. Purushaardha saaram instructing the kings to consult ministers and Theerthas before taking decisions. Nagarasri Kaavali – Chief of Palace guards. Niyogas – Government Officers. There were totally 72 Niyogas. Bahattara Niyogaadhipathi was the overseer on these 72 Niyogas. Kayastha Gangaya Sahini was the Bahattara Niyogaadhipathi during Ganapathi Deva period. Tripurari, after him Ponkala Mallayya Preggada were the Bahattara Niyogadhipatis during Rudramadevi period. During the Chalukya period, Brahmins were appointed to important offices like Manthri and Samantha Dandanaayaka. Kakatiyas made appointments based on the qualities of a person irrespective of caste. Kakatiyas contented with a mere title ‘Mahaa Mandaleshwara’. They did not assume the title which indicate their over lordship over vast territories. This may be due to as most of their feudatories were given chance to rule according to their laws. By the time of Rudramadevi, Kakatiya kings started depending hugely on Nayankara system. Nayankara system is equal to Delhi Sultans’ Iqta system. Due to this system Kakatiya kingdom had to face so many revolts from their feudatories.   Judiciary Kakatiyas followed traditional system in imparting justice.

Give an account of the socio, economic conditions of Kakatiya period

Give an account of the socio, economic conditions of Kakatiya period Kakatiya epigraphs bear testimony to the economic development witnessed by Andhradesa due to the cumulative effect of the steps taken by rulers and feuda¬tories and officials from AD 1158 to 1324. Both agriculture and trade and commerce, particularly long distance trade acted as a catalyst in carrying the Kakatiya state and making it economically sound. Cynthia Talbot writes “During the Kakatiya era, inland Andhra economy underwent considerable growth due to the extension of agriculture into uncultivated territories, the boosting of agricultural productivity through the construction of irrigational facilities and an overall rise in trade and commerce in which the temple as an institution was ultimately intertwined”. Though the core area of the Kakatiyas was ecologically in dry zone with scanty rainfall, with soil not very fertile, the Kakatiyas paid much attention to agriculture, the main occupation of majority of its population. They employed tank irrigation as a necessary technique to provide water for cultivation. In order to encourage more people to undertake the digging of tanks, wells and canals, tank construction was made one of the Saptasantanas which confers merit. Kakatiya epigraphs refer to more than 38 tanks of considerable size which provided water through artificial channels to thousands of acres. Of all the tanks, the Ramappa and the Pakala lakes are of large size and require special mention. Ramappa Lake adjoins the well-known Ramappa temple at Palampet in Mulug taluk of Warangal district. Gopal Reddy and P.V.P. Sastry state that this lake had a colossal bund only one side that extends over 200 feet and rises up to 56 feet. The lake has a ring of hills on three sides. Kakati Ganapati Deva’s Senapati, Recharla Rudra constructed this lake in AD 1213. Pakala Lake in Narasampet taluk ofWarangal district is larger than Ramappa Lake, with a dam composed of laterite pebbles and earth that is one mile long from which 40 artificial channels have been extended. This lake was also constructed in the time of Ganapati Deva by a subordinate, Jagadala Mummadi, the son of a minister or Mantri. The multitude of historical traces confirms that a boom in the building of tanks occurred in inland Andhra while the Kakatiyas were ruling. The tank foundation inscriptions are distributed throughout Telengana, the southern coastal districts, and in Cuddapah of Rayalaseema. They are more concentrated in the districts of Khammam and Warangal. Along with tank construction, we also notice the construction of temples with a tank in the interior as well as addition of a tank to the existing temples. Cynthia Talbot observes the frequency of new temples is notably higher in the Telangana than in coastal Andhra. The temple construction also led to the growth of new settle¬ments of people who brought uncultivated virgin land into cultivation. By these processes of tank construction and temple construction, the Kakatiyas achieved the twin objective of improving productivity by bringing new areas under culti¬vation and also the formation of Andhra as a regional society, noted by Talbot. Cultivable land was classified as wet and dry land. Wet land is further divided as paddy growing land and garden land. Dry lands are those where crops like millet, sesame, indigo, mustard, castor, etc., were grown which needed less water. Forests and pastures were kept exclusively for grazing cattle. Land was surveyed and measured, where the ruler collected one-fourth to one-half of the produce as revenue. The revenue was collected either in cash or in kind. The Kakatiyas levied different taxes like tax on grazing, property tax, income tax, profession tax, marriage tax, tax on herds of sheep and tax on salt. Heavy taxation by the state appears to be the feature of Kakatiya polity. In the Kakatiya Andhra, trade was carried on by well-organized Srenis or guilds. Both the merchants and artisans had their own guilds. Epigraphs refer to guild of weavers, agriculturists, oil pressers, mat makers, smiths, potters and jewelers. The guilds obtained a license to conduct business in a particular town or fair. Fairs or weekly markets were held regularly at specified places. The merchandise was transported by means of carts, oxen, horses, etc., and to a great extent by boats and barges through the rivers Govadari and Krishna. Kakatiyas recognized the importance of long distance trade. One indication that they wanted to encourage maritime trade, comes from the famous Mompalli epigraph which runs as follows: “This inscribed guarantee has been granted by his majesty the king Ganapati Deva which assures and welcomes the traders from other areas going back and forth through selected area to all countries and towns. In the past, kings forcibly seized all the cargo such as gold, elephants, horses, jewels, etc., when sea-going vessels journeying from one region to another were caught in storms, wrecked and cast on shore. But we for the sake of our reputation and religious merit and out of pity for those who have incurred the grave risk of a sea voyage thinking that wealth is more valuable than life give up all but the customary tariff” Motupalli must have been the chief port of the Kakatiyas and this port was visited by the Venitian traveller, Marco Polo. The Motupalli epigraph specifies the rates assessed on a variety of items, including scents such as sandal, camphor, rose-water, ivory, pearls, corals, a range of metals like copper, zinc and lead, silk, pepper, and areca nuts. This above list gives an idea of exports and imports from Motupalli port to other Indian regions along the coast as well to foreign territories. One Warangal epigraph issued by merchant groups, who traded in the main markets of Warangal, refers to the same commodities mentioned above. Another epigraph notes that a number of agricultural products offered for sale in Warangal market included rice, wheat, and other grains and assorted vegetables, coconuts, mangoes, tamarind and other fruits, sesame seeds, green lentils, mustard, honey, ghee, oil, turmeric and ginger. We have epigraphic reference to the activ¬ities of Pekkandru, a guild which was carrying on long distance trade. Besides, Motupalli, Krishnapattanam, Chinaganajam, Nellore, and Divi also played a very crucial role in fostering sea-borne trade. Thus, flourishing agriculture and surplus produce and long distance trade carried on by guilds like Pekkandru was the base for the sound economic position of Kakatiya Andhra.

Kakatiya Architecture / Write about Ramappa Temple

Kakatiya Architecture / Write about Ramappa Temple The Kakatiyas inherited the Chalukyan architecture but the distinctive feature of their architecture is the display of more indigenous art than that allowed by the texts. The architects used locally available granite and sandstone in the main structure of the Vimana and used bricks and lime in constructing superstructure. They used black granite for pillars, jambs, lintels, decorative motifs and icons. Their temple architecture reflects great sophistication and the ‘Thousand-pillared temple’ is a landmark in the evolution of the Kakatiyan architectural style. The great Rudresvara temple was built by Recharla Rudra, the commander in chief of Ganapati Deva; in the words of Y. Gopala Reddi it marks the climax of the Kakatiyan style. The Gomateswara temple at Manthani, the Erakesvara and the Namesvara temples at Pillalamarri and the temple at Naguladu are the masterpieces of the Kakatiyan style of architecture. About the Kakatiya sculptures, we have very little evidence to study it. Their main decoration was Kirtimukha or Krititorana. Nandis are a special feature of the Kakatiya sculpture. The Nandi images at Palampet, Thousand-pillared temple, Sambhuni Gudi, Ghanapur, Kolanupalli are some of the best examples with profuse bell ornamentation. The sculptural presence of Hamsa or swan motifs, on the gateways and friezes is to be noticed for their grace and beauty. Of the decorative sculptures, the motifs of dancers and Kolata are worth recording. It is also suggested by scholars that, they represent the dance styles of Jayapasenani. The Narasimha temple at Parivela near Nalgonda consists of profusely carved lintels and jambs. The temples at Nandigonda contain richly furnished Mandapa pillars and ceilings.

Write about Sammakka – Saarakka / Saaralamma

Write about Sammakka – Saarakka (Saaralamma) It was about 6-7 centuries ago when a group of tribals who went hunting into the forest found a baby girl lying amidst emitting light. The head of the tribe adopted her raised her. He got her married to feudatory tribal chief of Kakatiyas. They had three children, Saarakka, Nagulamma and Jampanna. Their region faced a severe drought which dried up their lakes resulting in their head Pagididda Raju (husband of Sammakka) failing to pay their share of tribute to the Kakatiya King Pratapa Rudra. In turn the King Pratapa Rudra sent his army to collect the tribute from tribals. This resulted in a war between the Kakatiyas and tribals. Everyone from Saarakka to Jampanna lost their lives in the battle trying to protect their section. Upon hearing this, Sammakka too joined the forces and fought valiantly and ransacked the Kakatiya army. Shocked by her bravery, the Kakatiya king visited the tribe for peace talks. Being furious about the loss of her tribe, family and people, Sammakka refused to come to terms and continued to fight. She pledged to her people that as long as she is alive she would protect them. She in turn cursed that the Kakaitya kingdom would perish soon. After being seriously injured in the battle and sending away the Kakatiya army, she walked into the forest towards Chilakala Gutta. When the tribals went in search for her, they only found a box containing vermillion (Kumkum), few bangles and a pug mark of a tigress. To their surprise this was the exact place where they found as a baby girl in the forest. Since then the tribes have been hosting a festival in her remembrance for her bravery in protecting their tribe.

Give an account of Nayankara system

Give an account of Nayankara system? Kakatiya nayakas represented a class of political agents that the central government in Warangal could use to exercise their authority throughout their dominion. In contrast, the old nobles of the early Kakatiya state remained entrenched in their respective localities and governed as de facto independent rulers, opposing the central government's drive to exercise more pervasive authority. Naturally, in their drive to extend central state authority into new localities and into the countryside, the Kakatiya monarchs and their nayaka agents occasionally encountered resistance from entrenched local groups. This resistance came not only from local nobles, but also from local peasant groups and assemblies. An interesting case in point comes from the nayankara of Nayaka Erra-lenka in Konduri-sthala. An individual named Doddapotipeddi from Pinapadu village, located in Erra-lenka's nayanakra, organized a protest against the taxes imposed by Nayaka Erra-lenka. As a result of the protest, Erra-lenka cancelled the taxes and recorded an apology to the local peasants. Thus, it seems that the agents of the central government and local groups occasionally clashed over the issue of taxation, as we see in centralizing states throughout the world and throughout history.   Nonetheless, it seems quite likely that the Kakatiya state in the 14th century was organized much more effectively than it was 100 years earlier. The old, powerful noble lineages like the Chalukyas and Kayasthas were reduced in power, and in their place, a new class of nayaka officers - largely of low, humble origins - emerged as the dominant subordinates of the new Kakatiya state. The modern-day dominant castes of Andhra and Telangana, including Reddis, Kammas, and Velamas, all trace their origins to these new Kakatiya nayakas of the late 13th and early 14th century. After the fall of Warangal to the forces of the Delhi Sultanate in 1323, these nayakas established their own states throughout Andhra and Telangana, and succeeded in driving out the Turks within a decade of the Kakatiya fall. Although a powerful, indigenous state like the Kakatiyas never again materialized in this region, the memory of the Kakatiyas and their institutions would live on until modern times (as, for example, in the 18th century Telugu chronicle Velugotivamsavali, which records the history of the shudra Velama chieftains, and begins by noting the Velama origins as nayaka officers under the Kakatiyas). In addition, as alluded to at the beginning of the essay, the institution of nayankara spread south in the 14th century to the new state of Vijayanagara, where it would further develop to become the dominant sociopolitical and military institution throughout South India.